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2.3. Phases of evolution and development model rabovladenija


In development of slaveholding economic system it is possible to allocate two basic macromodels: east, based on patriarchal slavery, and western, connected with the classical form of slavery.


In the given macromodels it is possible to allocate micromodels at level of the separate countries, and also adjacent forms of type Spartan rabovladenija in the Ancient Greece, closer to east type. It was characterised by the military man state rabovladeniem, but at the most severe operation.
East model rabovladenija
Early economic development in these regions was favoured by a warm climate, availability of the fertile earths, possibility of an annual irrigation of soil. In development of structure of economy of east model rabovladenija it is possible to allocate following characteristic lines.
1. Organizational-economic level economy structures it was defined by functioning of two-sector model of the economy including the state (temple) and obshchinno-private economy. The state was the main proprietor of a major factor of production – the earths. There were three basic forms of the state landholding: imperial (absolute), temple and velmozhnoe – conditional, that is the earth could not be a purchase and sale subject. The communal sector was based on a communal ownership on the earth and private – on production assets. Necessity of collective work for preservation of labour-consuming irrigational systems has caused weak development of a private property and prevalence of patriarchal (house) slavery. For example, the communal sector in Babylonia was strong enough and included from 50 to 70 % of all processed area. At the same time landholding basically had conditional character, including by lease (a payment in silver or a crop dale – 2/3 for an arable land or a garden and 1/3 for virgin lands) or on the terms of sublease.
In activity drevnevostochnyh governors struggle between communal and slaveholding consciousness was reflected. For example, in the states of Entre Rios agrarian problems repeatedly led to realisation of the important reforms. So in 2400 BC the governor of Lagash Urukagina accepts a number of measures for expansion of the communal earths, but thus it promotes slavery increase, including returning of slaves from aristocracy economy in the temple. In 2369 BC victory Sargona (SHarrukina) in Akkad, on the contrary, has led to reduction of communal sector at slavery increase. Ancient China also was characterised by strong public sector with the developed bureaucracy. Here the system conditional derzhanija the earths – «hereditary pozhalovanija» for service is early formed. But drevnekitajskoj economy it is necessary to carry fast formation of a private property to features on the earth, including «strong houses» – aristocracy economy. From here – the slavery is actively used not only in state, but also a private enterprise. Ancient Egypt too had the centralised economy. Officers considered a crop and quantity of cattle, distributed the tool and provisions from the state storehouses for obshchinnikov, working as a part of so-called «working groups» on irrigational or building objects. Approximately as craft production was organised also. In a private sector work of the slaves which were in the complete property of the owners was actively used, in the state production it was not applied almost.
2.
Branch level of structure of east model is presented by the big variety of kinds of economic activities. Though the basic sector of economy was agrarian (irrigational agriculture, gardening, cattle breeding), great value had crafts: potter's business, building, steklodelie, metallurgy, jeweller business, shipbuilding, textile business, processing of a reed and others. At the same time drevnevostochnaja the economy is characterised by the deformed structure that is connected with razdutym the public sector dictating production not for the market, and by request, and in some countries (especially Assyria) also overwork militarization. As a result domestic trade has mainly not developed, limited character (except for China and India).
Trade was a subject of special care of the state. In Babylonia to it special people – tamkary which conducted large state and own trade, besides often carrying out it through small intermediaries, for example, attended. Quite often they acted and as large leasers of the earth, and as usurers. It is considered, that the very first coins have appeared in an ancient Lidijsky kingdom and in China in VII century BC, and therefrom have extended worldwide. The great value for economy development has played also formation of primitive accounting basises.
3. Territorial level of structure of economy of east model rabovladenija is expressed more strongly at interstate level that was defined prirodno-climatic and political (for example, at Assyria – formation of colonial system) by factors and has been connected with necessity of maintenance with natural resources for needs of production.
4. Vosproizvodstvennyj level of structure of economy. For drevnevostochnyh the states the multistructure economy – coexistence of elements of a commodity exchange economy with elements natural, primitive economy – with rabovladeniem was characteristic. The basic manufacturer and the draught population were free obshchinniki, personally free and having the certain property, but by the position in the state system a little differing from slaves. So, in Ancient Egypt obshchinniki have been obliged to bear a natural duty in favour of the state (building of roads, irrigating systems and earth processing). At ground working off two ways were possible: all crop on the state plot is handed over to the state which pays a contentment, or work only on own plot, but at payment of high direct taxes. The compulsion system in the Babylon state was even more difficult. Except free (obshchinnikov) and slaves here there was a special category – semifree – "mushkenum" (declined face downwards) which could possess property including slaves, but depended on the owners. They worked in an imperial economy, executing all necessary duties, but had the limited civil rights.
Slave labour use was not of great importance. For it communication preservation between the direct manufacturer and its plot of the earth, some share of economic independence and the warranty against legal status change (a circulation interdiction in slavery of fellow tribesmen, exclusive restrictions etc. was characteristic.), rather small share of operation. Production was carried out within the limits of simple reproduction.
5. The external economic level of structure of economy was defined by inclusion drevnevostochnyh the states in system of global economic cooperations. A special role in development of the Mediterranean trade in II–I thousand has played BC Phoenicia. In Southern and South East Asia in foreign economic relations Ancient China having, as well as India, an active trade balance was in the lead. Position of Egypt was original. Having appeared on periphery of the trading world, it could not become its high-grade participant, but it promoted accumulation in the country of the big treasures.
The western model rabovladenija
The originality of its economic development was in many respects defined by features of prirodno-climatic character: riches of natural minerals; a favourable geographical position, that is why early involving in sphere of commercial relations; cоседством with ancient civilisations of the Forward East.
On organizational-economic level economic cultures concentration of the population in cities that has led to its domination in an economic life had great value. It has created conditions for formation of special type of an agricultural community – urban (in the form of the Greek policy or Roman munitsipija).
The policy – a city and the territory adjoining to it occupied by free people. It acts in development of the uniform form of the antique property as simultaneously properties state and private and represents coincidence of political collective to collective of ground proprietors, and consequently, coincidence of the political and military organisations.
Agriculture development was characterised by the further specialisation as in agriculture, and animal industries. Small country economy and larger estates of the patrimonial nobility were the basic cells of an agricultural production. The agriculture intensification has reached a high level in Roman empire when three forms of ground economy began to be allocated:
1) latifundii (from above 250 jugerov the earths and a considerable quantity of slaves);
2) country houses (100–250 jugerov the earths and 10–20 slaves);
3) small-scale enterprises rural plebsa.
The craft has been concentrated in cities. Among its kinds metallurgy, ceramics, manufacturing of jeweller ornaments, building, a sculpture etc. have special distribution. Its strongly pronounced colonial character was feature of development of craft production in the western model rabovladenija. From VIII century BC since time of Great colonisation in the centre of colonial system – mother countries there is production for satisfaction of cultural requirements. Large workshops, egasterii, with use of huge number of slaves Here act. In colonies vital production, in small workshops mainly with use of work of free handicraftsmen and a minimum of slaves is made. The important role was played by trade though its significance has amplified only by IV century BC trade Development is accompanied by monetary system perfection. In VI century BC in Greece existed two basic monetary standards: egejsky (1 talent – 37 kg of silver) and evbejsky (1 talent – 26 kg of silver) on which basis of 136 Greek policies manufactured own coin. Therefore in the market for exchange operations special offices menjalshchikov – trapezity (trapezit – the person behind a table, from here a meal) – prototypes of banks began to arise. Trapezity not only exchanged coins, but also attended to crediting. In 594 BC Athenian governor Solon has carried out monetary system reform on which the system was entered uniform evbejskaja. The reforms connected with stabilisation and unification of monetary circulation, were repeatedly conducted and in Ancient Rome. The basic nominal values in Rome were bronze and copper ass, the Roman pound, silver sestretsy, silver and gold dinary, and subsequently and gold solid.
Its polycultural character was feature of territorial structure of economy. In an agricultural production it was showed in special territorial specialisation – «the Mediterranean triad», focused on simultaneous cultivation in different regions of Greece of three cultures: cereals, mainly barley, grapes and an olive. Agricultural specialisation was present and in the Roman territories. So, in the most developed areas (Etruria, Kapanija, Apulia) grew up wheat, barley, millet, beans; in less developed and mountainous areas – polbu, beans, turnip and barley. The craft in Ancient Rome also developed at the expense of the legalised operation of provinces. The certain craft centres were thus allocated.
The social structure of antique company was enough difficult and included free citizens and aliens of the policy and slaves. The slave labour was used in all spheres of a life and production. In VI century BC reforms Solona, Pisistrata and Klisfena have destroyed conditions for internal slavery. In Ancient Rome the debt slavery for citizens has been cancelled in IV century BC by the Basic sources of slavery become a slave-trade and wars. However concentration of the earth, formation within the limits of the private property policy, growth of craft, trade and monetary circulation, growth of revolts conditioned for slave labour replacement. So, in the first centuries of our era in Roman empire were extended new forms of lease:
1) emfitevticheskaja (long-term, eternal), assuming payment of the tax from the property;
2) small feudalizations preparing the beginning on the basis of occurrence of relations of patronage (derzhanie the earths on the terms of protection for property transfer), prekarija (asked derzhanija on terms and conditions of contract) and kolonata (investment of slaves with the small property).
Statehood development in antique company has led to occurrence of tax system. Thus in the Ancient Greece the lower class received diets - the monetary contents allowing poor citizens to execute their responsibility in relation to the policy. The nobility bore public duties – the liturgies intended for financing of celebratory processions, cult ceremonies, theatrical performances, buildings etc. One of versions of liturgies was ejsfora – the tax for military needs which could be returned at successful military actions. An example of such taxes is trierarhija, supplying supply of the Greek vessel – triery. Free citizens of direct taxes did not pay. In V century receipts from collection of the customs duties, market taxes and taxes to the foreigners, compelled to pay podushnuju a tax BC have grown. Collection of taxes was carried out otkupshchikami – mytarjami, obliged to pay the firm sum to a community. The similar organisation of the taxation existed and in early Roman history. Citizens of Rome unlike inhabitants of provinces had the tax immunity loaded only in a wartime. Later at emperor Diokletiane (284–305) reform on which at preservation of set of indirect taxes by the basic taxes became the land tax and podushnaja a tax has been conducted, and tax exemption was saved only for urban bottoms, officers and veterans of army.
The antique model rabovladenija had developed enough external economic structure of economy. In the commodity circulation there were also subjects of daily demand, and not just fancies as it was in the east. For convenience in realisation of marine trading operations created associations – fiasy for a mutual gain loans, the insurance and information interchange. The trade balance of Rome with East Mediterranean was passive as the Roman items could not compete to the Greek. In II century in maritime trade the merchants who have created special trading companies have started to be in the lead Transalpine and tsizalpijskie.
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A source: D.A. Shevchuk. Economic history. 2009

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