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1.2.3. Medicine and medical education development in Russia in XIX century

Medicine development is directly connected with forms of transfer of medical knowledge. In the beginning of XIX century in Russia existed two higher medical educational institutions: medical faculty of the Moscow university and the Petersburg mediko-surgical academy.

At the Moscow university questions of the general pathology, physiology and therapy, and in Mediko-surgical academy - questions of anatomy, topographical anatomy and surgery, physiology — the applied knowledge necessary for doctors for activity in field conditions were developed, mainly. The medicine and public health services development, constantly growing requirement for medical shots have caused appreciable expansion of a network of higher educational medical institutions. By 60th years of XIX century in Russia was already eight universities in which structure medical faculties opened also: in Derpte (1802), Vilno (1803); Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1805), Kiev (1841). Doctors were prepared also by the Moscow and Vilensky mediko-surgical academies. In system of teaching of scientific disciplines at universities and academies there were conceptual differences: academies let out from the walls of the doctors prepared for military and civil practice, and universities — representatives of the intellectual elite, capable to be engaged not only medical practice, but also scientifically-teaching activity.

Development of the industry and growth of the population of cities of Russia in XIX century has caused of expansion of a hospital network. In 1775 in Moscow the Ekaterina's hospital, in 1784 in Petersburg Obuhovsky hospital has been created, in
1804 - Marinsky. «Hospitals in Tula, Lugansk and other cities Have been opened, and also the number of hospital cots in the hospitals located in gornozavodskih areas where there were state mines and factories» [Kolesov 1953: 39] is increased. Thus, medical education development passed at simultaneous strengthening of medical institutions. Further the hospital network of the country continued to increase.

In the first quarter of XIX century Russian medical periodicals have started to develop. In the end of XVIII century there were some medical periodicals which left in very small circulations, but already in the beginning of XIX century not only their number increases, but also scientific level grows. Since 1808 there was «a Mediko-physical magazine». In 1811 — 1816 the Petersburg mediko-surgical academy published «General magazine of a medical science». In 1828-1832 the professor of chemistry and pharmacology of Moscow university A.A. Iovsky (1796—1857) published «the Bulletin of natural sciences and medicine». The important role for development of domestic medicine «the Military-medical magazine», started to leave since 1823 has played

Histories of development of domestic medicine a huge role were played by medical societies. By the end of first half XIX century in their Russia existed less than 10, and to 1896 was already more than 120 scientifically-medical societies which members consisted more than half of all doctors [Kolomijtsev 2007: 118]. Medical societies solved not only special scientifically-methodical questions, but also is live responded to public events in the country. Problems of public hygiene entered into sphere of their interests, working out of rational forms of the organisation of medical aid to the population, questions of sanitary statistics, carrying out of mediko-topographical researches, working out of principles of construction zemskoj and city medicine, the program of activity of health officers, allocation of concepts of public medicine and social illnesses, etc.

In 1867 has been based the Russian society of care about wounded men and sick soldiers (since 1879 — the Russian society of the Red Cross), played the big role in
The organisations of the help to the wounded man, preparation of the average medical personnel, medical-food aid the population which has suffered from acts of nature and epidemics.

From the middle of XIX century in Russia highly specialised medical societies and the congresses, made considerable impact on progress of clinical medicine will be organised. The unconditional contribution to the science organisation was creation by societies of the first in Russia pasterovskih institutes, bacteriological laboratories, analytical stations. Wide publishing of medical societies had also huge value for propagation of achievements of a science. The aspiration to socially useful activity has found expression in the organisation of practical medical aid to the population, in creation on charitable means of the medical institutions giving accessible medical aid to the needy population, in the organisation of outpatient reception hours which were conducted by members of societies, the organisations of services of night medical watches and first aid. Medical societies had been initiated wide statement of struggle against a tuberculosis, an alcoholism, steps on rendering assistance suffering onkozabolevanijami are undertaken, the wide is organised

Sanitary-educational propagation.

XIX century was marked in medicine by introduction of patologo-anatomic openings, clinical laboratory analyses, introduction of two new methods of clinical research (perkussii and auskultatsii), application of the thermometer and kimografa, electricity studying promoted creation of new methods of electrodiagnostics, the microscope has been applied to search of parasites. In the middle of XIX century have received wide application in medicine of research by means of mirrors: have been offered matochnoe a mirror, an eye mirror, oftalmoskop, a guttural mirror (laringoskop) [Multanovsky 1961: 264]. In medicine there are large successes in diagnostics of illnesses in connection with introduction of the newest methods and devices, however treatment of diseases had considerably smaller successes. As a whole in Russia XIX century disease, especially
Epidemic and children's, and also death rate remained extremely high, therefore the big attention was given to perfection of methods of treatment. Development of medicinal methods of treatment in second half XIX century went in parallel with development of analytical and synthetic chemistry. Chemistry development promoted research of pharmacological and chemical properties of medicinal substances (basically a phytogenesis), to reception in the pure state many chemical substances thanks to what there was a possibility of their use in more exact dosage.

Improvement of diagnostic and therapeutic methods has resulted in second half XIX century in differentiation of separate clinical and theoretical disciplines that was reflected and in medicine teaching: there are chairs of pediatrics, infectious diseases, neuropathology, gynecology etc. Opening Purkine (1837), SHlejdenom (1838), Gorjaninovym and SHvannom (1839) cages have led to histology creation as separate science [Kolesov 1953: 40]. At this time from therapy new subjects of teaching were allocated: neuropathology, dermatology, psychiatry, pediatrics. The first hospital for children has been opened in Paris in 1802. The second children's hospital in Europe (on 60 cots) has been based in Petersburg in 1834. From surgery as independent disciplines were allocated ophthalmology, otorinolaringologija and gynecology. Many doctors gave value to measures for the prevention of illnesses by protection of an environment, improvement of working conditions and a life, «hygiene and sanitary as a science are a child of XIX century» [Lisitsyn 2015: 186].

Opening of a narcosis (1846) was the major achievement of surgery of XIX century. Large surgical interventions (amputations, trepanations, etc.) caused a shock and often terminated in death of patients, the inability to struggle with a pain detained medicine development. The radio narcosis which was empirically applied in America and the Western Europe, was accompanied by dangerous complications. On an organism, working out of technics of a narcosis, a substantiation of new versions of techniques of a radio narcosis in Russia outstanding Russian surgeon N.I.pie was engaged in revealing of the mechanism of action of an aether. In December, 1846 it
Has performed the first operation under a narcosis, in 1847 has published the works about a narcosis in which proved huge value of anaesthesia and offered wide introduction of a narcosis in practice of medical institutions.

For Russian surgery the recognition in first half XIX century of necessity of exact knowledge of anatomy for carrying out of operative interventions was important. In countries of Western Europe there was a division of medical workers into doctors of medicine (which received a medical education at universities) and surgeons (which did not pass corresponding training). In England, Germany, Denmark and other European countries preparation of physicians and surgeons, and also their rights were not identical. There was considered, that surgeons do not concern medicine as to a science, therefore they received the knowledge and practical skills as a craft apprenticeship, being trained at hospital doctors to some surgical receptions and skills. « The academic doctors receiving doctor's degree, esteemed such surgeons the servants »[Uderman 1970: 7]. Preparation of surgeons in Russia historically developed differently. At the organisation of medical preparation of doctors already in the end of XVII century surgical and anatomic practice, therefore the domestic doctors who have received a medical education has been organised, had advantage before the West European colleagues, to the full owning practical skills of surgeons. It was unessential, that each doctor operated, but doctors equally on medicine and surgery prepared, therefore the rights of physicians and surgeons were equal in Russia, awards, merits were given equally to that and another. The author of the first original Russian textbook on I.F.Bush's surgery wrote, that« Russian doctors never entered in vain and a medical science harmful debate of foreign doctors about branch of surgery from medicine »[Multanovsky 1961: 211].

In the European medicine of the period XVIII - there were some various directions (gumoralnoe in Austria and Germany, anatomic in France, etc.), and also some systems of separate authors (G.Shtalja, XIX century of century
Burgava, J. Brouna, F.Brusse, etc.) which made the strongest impact on medicine development in Russia. However at the same time in Russian medicine, connected with value of nervous system the original, original direction which is called "nervizmom" was outlined in human body activity. Origin nervizma is connected with aspiration to notice mentality influence (Of this year Zybelin) and nervous system (E.O.Mukhin, M.J.Mudrov, etc.) on physiology and a pathology of the person. E.O.Mukhin wrote to 1817: « ... Nerves are the guard of safety of our life and salutary forces of the nature », K.V.Lebedev in 1840 said, that«. All systems and bodies, even itself blood, are in perfect dependence from nervous »[Borodulin 1955: 6]. Development of this direction of domestic medicine has been continued in I.M.Setchenov, S.P.Botkin and I.P.Pavlova's works which defined influence of the centres of a brain on normal and pathological conditions of the person.

Development of a medical science and the public changes connected with medicine, found the reflexion in Russian medical terminology which expanded the borders, selected terminological units, got stability and sistemnost.

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A source: Budanova Natalia Aleksandrovna. DEVELOPMENT of MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY In RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE of SECOND HALF XIX CENTURY (on a material of names of illnesses). The dissertation on competition of a scientific degree of a Cand.Phil.Sci. Tver - 2018. 2018

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