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2.6. The Jewish agricultural colonisation.

For the first time, as it was already mentioned, possibility of attraction of Jews - of colonists to Russia was discussed in 1760th when, under some data, Catherine II gave to the entrusted officials of the task to send the West European Jews for settling Novorossii.

However it was at that time underlined, that the national identity installed poselentsev should not be called officially for the purpose of formal observance of the legislative norms forbidding to Jews to lodge on state territory. Thus, occurrence of Jews-colonists to sections of Speech pospolitoj remains out of a legal field.

After the introduction of Jews into the Russian citizenship resettlement of Jews in Novorossiju has been continued already on the legal bases. So, Novorossisk governor M.V.Muromtsev in 1776 has signed "standards" according to which in territories operated it numerous privileges - tax exemption for seven years were promised to Jews, according a right of wine trade, the permission to employment of workers-Christians etc. However these benefits have been caused by the requirement to be engaged in agricultural work while Jews, even despite so essential stimulus, preferred to lodge in cities and to continue trading-craft employment [327]. However, the local administration agreed and accepting Jews-townspeople (and both from Belarus, and from - for borders: In 1780 the Jewish families which have left Galicia have lodged in Sevastopol, entering at that time in Avstroyovengersky empire) [328], though and with granting of less considerable privileges by it [329] some. The Sole cause, on which power in that
The period supported the Jewish colonisation, there was an absolute must of settling of poorly populated Black Sea Coast [330].

Absolutely other motives had been caused projects of creation of the Jewish colonies, which steels to appear in 90th of XVIII century. So, in 1793 of T.I.Tutolmin, shortly before it taken charge attached on the second section of Speech pospolitoj territories, in the letter to the favourite n P. A. Zubovu named deprived Jews "parasites" (not extending, however, this definition on other Jews having profitable employment) and suggested them «to lodge on pustoporozhnih the earths» [331]. G.R.Derzhavin in "Opinion" also supported compulsory resettlement on the empty state earths in Novorossisk and Astrakhan provinces of those Belarus Jews as which he considered "superfluous" proceeding from the ideal proportion of the Christian and Jewish population deduced by it [332]. It was supposed, that this measure will allow to solve at once some problems: To relieve of overpopulation the Belarus cities, to distract Jews from distillation (having avoided, thereby, drunkenness and hunger among peasants), and the main thing - to overcome harmful social bents of Jews, having transformed them in useful citizens. Last argument expressed widespread model of the relation to the Jews, characterised as «correction rhetoric» [333], and went back to
Popular during an epoch of Education of the economic theory fiziokratov according to which farmers and land owners were unique useful public classes, and all the others only consumed a product made by them [334]. Similar charges to the Jews, also inspired by educational ideas, sounded and in Speech pospolitoj last years its existence, in particular, during discussions on «a four-year-old diet» 1788-1792 [335] German statesman and publicist Hristian Wilhelm a background the House in the work with the characteristic name «About civil improvement of Jews» has devoted a lot of attention to reasonings that during public and political progress Jews should address to craft and agriculture [336].

To similar views adhered not only Christian critics of Jews: Some of the Jews-maskilim who have joined secular European culture, also propagandised employment by agriculture and craft in a counterbalance of traditional propensity to sphere of trade and services [337]. However, the problem consisted in Europe that there till XIX century for Jews access to many trades has been legislatively closed, and they forcedly were engaged in mainly small trade [338]; the Russian experience, however, proved, as for lack of such interdiction Jews aspired to occupy a narrow specific economic niche, not
Showing mass interest in extraneous employment, especially in agriculture.

Undoubtedly, these offers (together with projects of attraction of Jews to agricultural work which were considered by the Four-year-old diet 1788-1792 in Speech pospolitoj [339]) have made some impact on the first Jewish committee. According to position of 1804, Jews has been accorded to receive a right the earths in gratuitous using, and for this purpose special funds of the state earths were created. Such funds were created in those provinces of line of settled way of life in which development the state has been most interested: in Vilensky, Grodno, Minsk, Volynsk, Podolsk, Astrakhan, Caucasian, Ekaterinoslavsky, Kherson and Taurian provinces (item 17). poselentsy should be allocated with the earth on the norm existing for the state peasants, that is on 8 desjatin on revizskuju to a shower [340]. Besides, the Jews-farmers installed on the state earths, could receive «on an institution» loans from the government. It is characteristic, that loans should be given «according to rules on which to colonists foreign that loan is repaired» [341] of what researchers of the Jewish question do a conclusion, that at this time the government continued to consider Jews as not quite high-grade citizens of empire, «the people who have not lost values of foreign inhabitants» [342].

Thus, radical derzhavinsky the project of compulsory formation of colonies has been apprehended by Position of 1804 in considerably softened form. Researchers expressed
The opinion, that it is necessary to charge to influence of the Polish court party and personally A.Chartoryjskogo [343]. Interest of Poles in this business speaks that they did not wish to refuse from intermediary and faktorskih services which were rendered to them by Jews. As proof of I.G.Orshansky's this position results those norms of Position of 1804 which should support a traditional way of life of Jews, having prevented their integration into the Russian society: preservation of line of settled way of life, acknowledgement of the rights kagala, equalising of the status of Russian, Polish and German languages for external official contacts of Jews to Christians [344].

It is easy to understand, that in XIX century, unlike the previous period, the state, inducing Jews to resettlement, in bolshej to a measure aspired to their "correction", than to development of empty southern territories. I.G.Orshansky fairly noticed, that Jews could bring much more advantage if were engaged in Novorossii in craft and trade, as in these areas, unlike agriculture, they were rather svedushchi; as the state, obviously, has been interested not only in pashennom development of southern provinces, but also in development there cities [345]. Nevertheless, the legislation did not assume to lodge for the moved Jews of possibility in cities that has appreciably predetermined failure kolonizatsionnoj campaigns.

The Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1814 has estimated results of the Jewish agricultural colonisation so: «This on their known disgust for this rank, on ignorance how to be accepted to rural works, and on omission of inspectors bolsheju chastiju has made
Considerable between them frustration »[346]. The uttermost inability of Jews to be engaged in earth processing was the serious obstacle to realisation of these norms of Position, of course; for more than seventeen centuries of diaspora all agricultural skills at ashkenazi have been completely lost [347]. According to the Four-year-old diet, on the eve of the second section in Speech pospolitoj 14 families of Jews - of farmers [348] (in spite of the fact that it gave considerable privileges - they were released from a universal tax for life [349]) were only. Besides, agricultural work was perceived by Jews as"low", unworthy employment [350]. The practice initiated by Novorossisk administration podselenija in newly founded Jewish settlements skilled in zemledenlii Russian peasants [351] has not brought essential results even. Lack of information of Jews in the field of earth processing was marked also by contemporaries-eyewitnesses [352]. In this connection it is necessary to recognise absolutely fair the characteristic given to colonizer attempts of authorities S.A. Bershadsky and J. D.Klierom from which the first named them «pastoral imaginations» [353], and the second - «pink dreams» [354].

However the problem consisted not only in it, but also what even public agents, despite containing in Position of 1804 of the declaration, in practice could not render to the Jews, nevertheless wished to move, any assistance. So, Mogilyov governor M.M.Bakunin, having received from Jews the application on resettlement,
Has consulted about the further actions with Minister of Internal Affairs V.P.Kochubey, especially having specified, as it is necessary to resolve a question on delivery to immigrants enquired by them (and promised by Position of 1804) loans from the state. V.P.Kochubey, not having given the answer in essence, has charged to the governor to find out, than these Jews were engaged earlier, whether is registered behind them shortages under taxes, whether they possess the abilities necessary for an institution of own economy, and whether it is possible to expect, that subsequently they will pay the loan. In reply to similar inquiry of the Minsk provincial board, the Minister of Internal Affairs has explained, that «will be made vspomozhenie in construction of houses and in purchase of cattle and necessary things different in an economy», but to reach a place of settlement and to provide to itself livelihood colonists should at own expense [355]. Such reaction is especially surprising if to consider, that Kochubey was a member of the first Jewish committee so, on the one hand, personally initiated campaign for the Jewish agricultural colonisation, and with another - should understand well features of a way of life of Jews and realise the risks connected with it. Nevertheless, having received the first data on the Jews, wishing to be engaged in agriculture, it has not supported their undertaking, and first of all has attended to possibility of no-purpose use of state means [356].

To expect bolshego enthusiasm from other representatives of administration especially it was impossible; really, there are data that Minsk and vilensky governors too opposed the Jewish colonisation, including because of unwillingness to spend for it state means [357], and ekaterinoslavskoe the provincial board refused to Jews-petty bourgeoises in an addition to a class of farmers as put by it in this case podatnye privileges would entail
Reduction of state incomes [358]. However, the reasons of such position were somewhat explainable - was considered, that Jews can use resettlement in a colony as a way of leaving from taxes; for this reason the authorities of provinces where the moved Jews before lived, and after their settlement in a colony continued to demand collecting from them a shortage for previous years [359].

Has played the role and the bad administrative organisation of process of resettlement. So, in 1809, i.e. in two years after the beginning of active Jewish agricultural colonisation, the Novorossisk tutorial office reported on Minister of Internal Affairs A.B.Kurakin, that «neither log huts, nor adaptations for them [Jews, shortly before that sent in Novorossiju from Vitebsk province - A.E.] is not present in readiness» and that «they should suffer of need and anxiety in narrowness on apartments German and Russian poselentsev in state settlements» [360].

In total in a course kolonizatsionnoj the campaign which have directly followed the edition of Position of 1804, it has been based eight Jewish colonies - two in 1807 and six in 1809 (all of them settled down in the Kherson province) [361]. However inexpediency of continuation of attempts of transformation of Jews in farmers was soon enough is understood by the central power. On April, 6th, 1810 the Committee of ministers had been accepted the decree about the termination of resettlement of Jews in Novorossisk edge [362]. It did not mean an interdiction to Jews on a settlement in agricultural colonies in Novorossii, however henceforth when from them the petition for resettlement arrived, this petition was satisfied only provided that all expenses on
And on arrangement of an economy they will bear road independently. In practice the costs connected with moving, were assigned on kagaly, which have been interested in to admitting an overpopulation of cities of line of settled way of life [363].

Motivirovano such decision was first of all that the most part of the sum of 300000 roubles, allocated on the Highest command on delivery of grants to immigrants, was by this time already istrachena [364], and assignment of additional means by Committee about reduction of the State expenditure was not provided. Thus from the decree text it is possible to conclude, that absence of means in treasury has been apprehended as a convenient occasion to refuse the campaign which actual failure became obvious by then. In particular, the Minister of Internal Affairs, offering Committee of ministers to cease state dotirovanie resettlements of Jews, referred to the report of the Kherson governor according to which «on neprivychke Jews to hlebopashestvu and on nechistote in their life, death rate between them is rather high, and to move them more should not».

Attracts attention that, according to this decree, for more than five years which have passed after acceptance of Position of 1804, only about 600 families have left in Novorossiju, and only 300 families have expressed desire to make it in the future. The data received from other sources, are comparable. On materials of VI audit, in 1811 in colonies lived 834 families including 2152 souls
Male [365]. In the senatorial report submitted on the Highest name in 1812, it is informed, that in Russian empire 13925 showers of Jews-farmers [366] from which in agriculture only 178 Jews really were engaged were, the others only have expressed desire to be engaged hlebopashestvom (the State Council, probably, fairly having counted is in the way of leaving from taxes, has especially noticed, that such Jews before actual resettlement in agricultural colonies do not come under promised by Position of 1804 to clearing from podushnoj to a tax, and taxes on a level with petty bourgeoises [367] should pay). In 1814, under sheets of Office of guardianship, in the Jewish agricultural colonies 591 family in number of 3672 souls [368] (reduction of number of the families installed in colonies spoke that, according to the Office reports, some colonists have been released from colonies under time passports, have left colonies autocratically or have been dismissed from an agricultural rank [369]) was registered. By data for 1821, Jews-farmers 11825 showers were; thus it was not reserved, how many from them actually were engaged in agriculture, but, judging by that more than 8000 of them was registered in Vilensky province where colonisation has been extended a little, it were far not all [370]. Last years the period considered in the present research the quantity of Jews - of farmers should increase a little, as in 1821-1826 Owing to new mass campaign for eviction of Jews from villages and villages, about 420 families have wished to move in Novorossiju [371], however to basic change of a situation it, certainly, has not resulted.

Considering, that in Russian empire at that time lived, by the most authentic estimations, about 700-800 thousand Jews, it is possible to draw a conclusion, that hopes of the mass reference of Jews to agriculture as a whole were not justified. Even promises of the state help and fiscal incentives could not force to leave in large quantities Jews their traditional environment. Those few Jews who nevertheless agreed to leave in Novorossiju, did it only owing to extreme poverty; for example, in pinkose Mstislavsky kagala the motives inducing to resettlement, spoke so: «our Eyes have grown dim, looking at need and disasters, on how our children ask breads, and there is nothing to satisfy their hunger» [372 [373]. It is probable, if dispatch of Jews from villages and villages among those who has all the same lost the houses and habitual employment, the share moved would be more has not been suspended; however the failure of one reform of the Jewish life has entailed also failure another.

Thus resettlement in Novorossiju even this small number of Jews in itself cannot be considered as an indicator of that the project of the reference of Jews in farmers was at least partially successful. It is possible to judge it, for example, under messages of scientific Jew Markusa Gurovicha which in 50th of XIX century went round Novorossisk edge and got acquainted, among other, with a life of the Jewish colonies of the Kherson and Ekaterinoslavsky provinces. In the note to the governor he noticed, that many colonists only are registered on audit by those to use the fiscal incentives given by the law, actually they are engaged in trade in neighbouring 373

Cities.

Under special instructions of the emperor in position from April, 6th, 1810 it has been noticed, that «it is necessary to stop only again a settlement
Them, the same which are already installed to leave in the present position without any change », however simultaneously with it has been decided to offer the immigrants, doing not wish to continue employment by agriculture, to return to the western provinces to places of their former addition. Jews who nevertheless would remain in Novorossii, should be under supervision of local authorities so that after a year those from them which will appear incapable of agriculture, have been sent on cloth factories where they should remain before working off of the costs suffered by the government on their resettlement in southern provinces. Cloth factories have been defined for this purpose, it is probable, because in 1808 the emperor had been approved the project of Minister of Internal Affairs A.B. Kurakin «About multiplication and strengthening of manufacture of cloth», where as one of measures to development of cloth manufacture in sheep-breeding southern provinces of Russia it was offered to use as factory working Jews and chinshevuju shljahtu (i.e. small landless nobility) [374]. Thus, the state has partially refused earlier taken obligations on material support of immigrants, having taken into consideration absence at them propensities and abilities to employment by agriculture though it is necessary to notice, that to Novorossisk Jews - to farmers it did not mean full refusal of rendering assistance. So, in August, 1813 on grants to all colonists from treasury it is assigned 50 thousand rbl. (degree of financial irregularities which, undoubtedly, also steels of one of the reasons of difficulties with colonisation, can be estimated to that colonists enquired of the Kherson governor of 115 thousand rbl. While by calculations of the Chief justice of Office of guardianship Novorossisk foreign poselentsev in which conducting there were all Novorossisk Jewish colonies [375], actually from this sum
By it 8050 rbl.) [376] should be demanded only. In 1817 on demand of Office of guardianship Jews-colonists have been released from payment of taxes on the following of 5 years, and return to debt treasury for received at an institution of an economy property have been spread on 30 377

Years [377].

In 1809-1810 when colonisation failure became obvious, in Committee of ministers the question on that «to dismiss all Jews from a class of farmers which in this to remain was discussed will not wish» [378]. The guardianship Office was interested in the Same possibility also. The Ministry of Internal Affairs in reply to corresponding inquiry has offered the Jews installed in colony Bobrovyj kut of the Kherson district, in case of their unwillingness to continue employment by agriculture to arrive workers on the Jewish factory in Kremenchug, however volunteers were not [379]. The Vitebsk civil governor in reply to similar inquiries of Office has explained, that the Jews referring to inability to agriculture, it is not necessary to release in the former places of residence as it leads to evasion from taxes and to vagrancy since the Jews ranked as a class of farmers, appear are released from taxes and excluded from former petty-bourgeois societies [380]. The guardianship office, however, has not accepted an explanation of the Vitebsk governor and has considered what to keep Jews in a rank of farmers it has no right as Position of 1804 allowed to pass to Jews with the consent of the heads from one rank in another [381]. However similar applications continued to arrive, their quantity increased, and the guardianship Office expressed fear, that in due course in colonies «the number of owners to such degree will decrease, as houses remain are empty, and a state debt will collect
There is nobody »[382]. In a note of Department of the state farm, presented in this occasion to the Minister of Internal Affairs, it was specified, that else the Highest command about leaving without satisfaction of requests of Jews about dismissal from an agricultural rank, however and after this command has been declared to Office on April 6, 1810 has taken place, it continued to release such Jews from colonies [383]. Besides negative consequences of such practice already named the Vitebsk governor - leaving from taxes and vagrancy development - the economy Department named one more, namely vain waste of state means, before released to the aid of colonists who then will cease employment by agriculture. Therefore on November, 27th, 1812 the State council has defined as much as possible complicated order of an exit from colonies: Colonists were forbidden for dismissing from an agricultural rank the whole settlements or in such quantity from which the settlement could be upset, besides the dismissed should pay all debts before treasury and present on the place of other colonist [384]. In 1815 such order has been confirmed by the Ministry of Internal Affairs [385]. However no formal difficulties could keep Jews in colonies where it was not possible to them to adjust an economy. As the Vitebsk civil governor, the majority of Jews of the Belarus province which have moved in Novorossiju informed in 1823, to the beginning of 20th have come back back to former places of an addition [386]; only in 1821-1822 the decision on returning of 573 families [387] was accepted.

The project of creation of agricultural colonies forces of members of the Society of the Israeli Christians, i.e. vykrestov as in this case absence of desire to be engaged in the rural has appeared even more fruitless
Economy it was supported at Jews with absence of desire to be christened. The initiator of creation of a society A.N.Golitsyn assumed, that members of this society after Christianity acceptance begin to lodge compactly on specially allocated for this purpose in the earths Novorossii which will be transferred them gratuitously and forever. In 1818 the Committee of guardianship of the Israeli Christians and then in Novorossiju outdoor adviser Grigory Mizko it was entrusted to them to survey the state earths has been sent has started to operate and to find sites, suitable for creation of such settlements. In 1819 he reported, that the most convenient to it represent sites in 26 thousand desjatin near Taganrog and Mariupol, belonging to Greeks-colonists, but already appointed to returning to treasury «behind an excess». However departmental correspondence concerning tap of the earths, and also consideration of the complaints of the Mariupol Greeks submitted in this occasion have occupied more than two years. The first petitions of the Jews who have accepted Christianity for resettlement have started to be considered only in 1823, and trial was tightened, as there were no unequivocal proofs of their christening, and eventually in the request by it has been given up [388]. According to 3rd branch of own Its imperial majesty of office, in 1827 on the earths taken away near Mariupol there was no tenant [389]. In 1833 the Committee of guardianship of the Israeli Christians has been officially abolished [390].

The interconnected attempts of resettlement of Jews from a countryside in cities, prevention of the Jewish trade by alcohol and attraction of Jews to agriculture and factory business brightly illustrate the thesis about impossibility of the decision of deep social problems exclusively administrative methods. The government
Believed, that, having induced the Jewish population to apprehend employment approved by the power, such as craft and agriculture, it can simultaneously achieve that the Jewish diaspora has started to harm the state not as was considered earlier, and advantage. Thus variety of circumstances which initially did realisation of this plan improbable has not been considered. First, allocation of state means for resettlement of Jews, no less than granting of any other real support from the state which could induce them have been limited to express desire to leave on the developed earths of southern provinces or at least not to resist to dispatch from shljahetskih estates. Secondly, the government has obviously overestimated abilities and possibilities of local administration which not only in practice faced the numerous obstacles, stirring to it to execute instructions of the central authorities, but also did not do serious attempts to overcome these obstacles by own forces as it is possible to judge under the reports mentioned above which contained basically only complaints to arising difficulties, but not constructive offers. In-third, the model of social and economic relations between noblemen - land owners, Jews-otkupshchikami and peasants was not taken into consideration developing on the Polish territories by centuries. This model assumed mutual hostility, but simultaneously and the mutual benefit, therefore any of the parties did not aspire to change a situation, and it is nobody the state was to lean in its aspiration to forbid Jews to be engaged in distillation, payoffs and korchemstvom, having deprived, thereby, shljahtu a source of incomes of rent, Jews - traditional employment and a traditional environment, and peasants - cheap accessible alcohol and the income of sale of surpluses of grain in bumper-crop years.

By the way, one of the reasons of an inattention of the state to mass aversion of a policy of eviction of Jews from a countryside, and also agricultural colonisation, was also that on these measures did not arrive complaints from Jews as the majority of the Jewish deputies addressing directly with the power, were or representatives of rich merchant class, or maskilim (i.e. supporters of secular education), and first of all expansion of commercial laws and access to the European culture, hence, tried to achieve; problems of the Jewish poor were alien to them [391].

In any case, the program offered by the first Jewish committee according to which the Russian Jews should in the shortest terms and in large quantities apprehends nonconventional professional works for them, and also change the place of residence, initially was extremely speculative, based on abstract rationalistically-educational ideas [392], and to expect it

Realisation it was impossible. Unique possibility essentially change a way of life of a great bulk of the Jewish population there could be an active integration of Jews into the Russian society to which, as of the beginning of XIX century, Jews [393] were not ready neither the government, nor the Christian majority.

At the same time, already during this period bases of vicious governmental logic according to which the power could demand from Jews of conformity to the representations of officials torn off from a reality about public advantage, thus nothing offering in exchange and not providing conditions for overcoming of isolation of the Jewish diaspora have been put in pawn. In the beginning of XIX century such state of affairs
Allowed to keep status quo and was even mutually advantageous: the Jewish communities received a relative is social-legal autonomy and possibility to keep traditional way, and the government though was not capable to spend planned radical restructurings, could hope for preservation of a stable situation round the Jewish citizens, thus realising soft enough, in comparison with later periods, to the politician on the Jewish question. Some decades after aspiration of Jews to integration have repeatedly amplified, and Jews have started to feel necessity for reciprocal steps of the government which would help them to overcome developed estrangement. By the end of XIX century the considerable part of Jews required that the state has formally and informally approved attempts to refuse a traditional "backward" way of life, to receive a secular education and different ways to start to participate more actively in a social life outside of the Jewish communities; It was thus important, that the state did not cause such approval by the requirement of a christening and refusal of national-religious identity. Besides, the society as a whole by this time became more modernised and under condition of a loyal state policy to Jews could accept rather without serious consequences rapprochement with the Jewish diaspora. In the majority of the foreign states of event developed so, and Jews were rather organically entered in a social life of these countries; in Russia similar processes have caused anti-Semitism splash, the Jewish pogroms, toughening of a state policy concerning Jews, strengthening prozelitizma from the power, and as response - a wide circulation of in a revolutionary way-socialist and Zionist ideas in the Jewish environment. It is necessary to search for roots of these problems in the considered period of the end XVIII - the beginnings of XIX centuries Put in pawn then tradition of the relation to Jews from the state,

Not bringing harm of any of the parties at that time, half a century later has turned back the main precondition of an unusual aggravation of the Jewish question.

3.

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A source: ABAKUMOVA Evgeniya Vladimirovna. the LEGAL STATUS of JEWS In RUSSIAN EMPIRE In the end of XVIII - the BEGINNING of XIX CENTURIES the Dissertation on competition of a scientific degree of the master of laws. Moscow - 2014. 2014

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